cut command in Linux with examples

The cut command in UNIX is a command for cutting out the sections from each line of files and writing the result to standard output. It can be used to cut parts of a line by byte position, character and field. Basically the cut command slices a line and extracts the text. It is necessary to specify option with command otherwise it gives error. If more than one file name is provided then data from each file is not precedes by its file name.

Syntax:

cut OPTION... [FILE]...

Let us consider two files having name state.txt and capital.txt contains 5 names of the Indian states and capitals respectively.

$ cat state.txt
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

Without any option specified it displays error.

$ cut state.txt
cut: you must specify a list of bytes, characters, or fields
Try 'cut --help' for more information.

Options and their Description with examples:

1. -b(byte): To extract the specific bytes, you need to follow -b option with the list of byte numbers separated by comma. Range of bytes can also be specified using the hyphen(-). It is necessary to specify list of byte numbers otherwise it gives error. Tabs and backspaces are treated like as a character of 1 byte.

List without ranges
$ cut -b 1,2,3 state.txt
And
Aru
Ass
Bih
Chh

List with ranges
$ cut -b 1-3,5-7 state.txt
Andra
Aruach
Assm
Bihr
Chhtti

It uses a special form for selecting bytes from beginning upto the end of the line:

In this, 1- indicate from 1st byte to end byte of a line
$ cut -b 1- state.txt
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

In this, -3 indicate from 1st byte to 3rd byte of a line
$ cut -b -3 state.txt
And
Aru
Ass
Bih
Chh

2. -c (column): To cut by character use the -c option. This selects the characters given to the -c option. This can be a list of numbers separated comma or a range of numbers separated by hyphen(-). Tabs and backspaces are treated as a character. It is necessary to specify list of character numbers otherwise it gives error with this option.

Syntax:

$cut -c [(k)-(n)/(k),(n)/(n)] filename

Here,k denotes the starting position of the character and n denotes the ending position of the character in each line, if k and n are separated by “-” otherwise they are only the position of character in each line from the file taken as an input.

$ cut -c 2,5,7 state.txt
nr
rah
sm
ir
hti

Above cut command prints second, fifth and seventh character from each line of the file.

$ cut -c 1-7 state.txt
Andhra
Arunach
Assam
Bihar
Chhatti

Above cut command prints first seven characters of each line from the file.

Cut uses a special form for selecting characters from beginning upto the end of the line:

$ cut -c 1- state.txt
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

Above command prints starting from first character to end. Here in command only starting
position is specified and the ending position is omitted.

$ cut -c -5 state.txt
Andhr
Aruna
Assam
Bihar
Chhat

Above command prints starting position to the fifth character. Here the starting position
is omitted and the ending position is specified.

3. -f (field): -c option is useful for fixed-length lines. Most unix files doesn’t have fixed-length lines. To extract the useful information you need to cut by fields rather than columns. List of the fields number specified must be separated by comma. Ranges are not described with -f option. cut uses tab as a default field delimiter but can also work with other delimiter by using -d option.

Note: Space is not considered as delimiter in UNIX.

Syntax:

$cut -d "delimiter" -f (field number) file.txt

Like in the file state.txt fields are separated by space if -d option is not used then it prints whole line:

$ cut -f 1 state.txt
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

If -d option is used then it considered space as a field separator or delimiter:

$ cut -d " " -f 1 state.txt
Andhra
Arunachal
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

Command prints field from first to fourth of each line from the file.
Command:
$ cut -d " " -f 1-4 state.txt
Output:
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

4. –complement: As the name suggests it complement the output. This option can be used in the combination with other options either with -f or with -c.

$ cut --complement -d " " -f 1 state.txt
Pradesh
Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

$ cut --complement -c 5 state.txt
Andha Pradesh
Arunchal Pradesh
Assa
Biha
Chhatisgarh

5. –output-delimiter: By default the output delimiter is same as input delimiter that we specify in the cut with -d option. To change the output delimiter use the option –output-delimiter=”delimiter”.

$ cut -d " " -f 1,2 state.txt --output-delimiter='%'
Andhra%Pradesh
Arunachal%Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

Here cut command changes delimiter(%) in the standard output between the fields which is specified by using -f option .

6. –version: This option is used to display the version of cut which is currently running on your system.

$ cut --version
cut (GNU coreutils) 8.26
Packaged by Cygwin (8.26-2)
Copyright (C) 2016 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
License GPLv3+: GNU GPL version 3 or later .
This is free software: you are free to change and redistribute it.
There is NO WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by law.

Applications of cut Command

1. How to use tail with pipes(|): The cut command can be piped with many other commands of the unix. In the following example output of the cat command is given as input to the cut command with -f option to sort the state names coming from file state.txt in the reverse order.

$ cat state.txt | cut -d ' ' -f 1 | sort -r
Chhattisgarh
Bihar
Assam
Arunachal
Andhra

It can also be piped with one or more filters for additional processing. Like in the following example, we are using cat, head and cut command and whose output is stored in the file name list.txt using directive(>).

$ cat state.txt | head -n 3 | cut -d ' ' -f 1 > list.txt

$ cat list.txt
Andhra
Arunachal
Assam

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101-500: LPI Linux Administrator - 101

Exam Objectives Version: Version 5.0

Exam Code: 101-500

About Objective Weights: Each objective is assigned a weighting value. The weights indicate the relative importance of each objective on the exam. Objectives with higher weights will be covered in the exam with more questions.

Objective

Topic 101: System Architecture

101.1 Determine and configure hardware settings

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to determine and configure fundamental system hardware

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Enable and disable integrated peripherals.
◈ Differentiate between the various types of mass storage devices.
◈ Determine hardware resources for devices.
◈ Tools and utilities to list various hardware information (e.g. lsusb, lspci, etc.).
◈ Tools and utilities to manipulate USB devices.
◈ Conceptual understanding of sysfs, udev and dbus.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ /sys/
◈ /proc/
◈ /dev/
◈ modprobe
◈ lsmod
◈ lspci
◈ lsusb

101.2 Boot the system

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to guide the system through the booting process.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Provide common commands to the boot loader and options to the kernel at boot time.
◈ Demonstrate knowledge of the boot sequence from BIOS/UEFI to boot completion.
◈ Understanding of SysVinit and systemd.
◈ Awareness of Upstart.
◈ Check boot events in the log files.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ dmesg
◈ journalctl
◈ BIOS
◈ UEFI
◈ bootloader
◈ kernel
◈ initramfs
◈ init
◈ SysVinit
◈ systemd

101.3 Change runlevels / boot targets and shutdown or reboot system

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to manage the SysVinit runlevel or systemd boot target of the system. This objective includes changing to single user mode, shutdown or rebooting the system. Candidates should be able to alert users before switching runlevels / boot targets and properly terminate processes. This objective also includes setting the default SysVinit runlevel or systemd boot target. It also includes awareness of Upstart as an alternative to SysVinit or systemd.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Set the default runlevel or boot target.
◈ Change between runlevels / boot targets including single user mode.
◈ Shutdown and reboot from the command line.
◈ Alert users before switching runlevels / boot targets or other major system events.
◈ Properly terminate processes.
◈ Awareness of acpid.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ /etc/inittab
◈ shutdown
◈ init
◈ /etc/init.d/
◈ telinit
◈ systemd
◈ systemctl
◈ /etc/systemd/
◈ /usr/lib/systemd/
◈ wall

Topic 102: Linux Installation and Package Management

102.1 Design hard disk layout

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to design a disk partitioning scheme for a Linux system.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Allocate filesystems and swap space to separate partitions or disks.
◈ Tailor the design to the intended use of the system.
◈ Ensure the /boot partition conforms to the hardware architecture requirements for booting.
◈ Knowledge of basic features of LVM.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ / (root) filesystem
◈ /var filesystem
◈ /home filesystem
◈ /boot filesystem
◈ EFI System Partition (ESP)
◈ swap space
◈ mount points
◈ partitions

102.2 Install a boot manager

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to select, install and configure a boot manager.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Providing alternative boot locations and backup boot options.
◈ Install and configure a boot loader such as GRUB Legacy.
◈ Perform basic configuration changes for GRUB 2.
◈ Interact with the boot loader.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ menu.lst, grub.cfg and grub.conf
◈ grub-install
◈ grub-mkconfig
◈ MBR

102.3 Manage shared libraries

Weight: 1

Description: Candidates should be able to determine the shared libraries that executable programs depend on and install them when necessary.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Identify shared libraries.
◈ Identify the typical locations of system libraries.
◈ Load shared libraries.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ ldd
◈ ldconfig
◈ /etc/ld.so.conf
◈ LD_LIBRARY_PATH

102.4 Use Debian package management

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to perform package management using the Debian package tools.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Install, upgrade and uninstall Debian binary packages.
◈ Find packages containing specific files or libraries which may or may not be installed.
◈ Obtain package information like version, content, dependencies, package integrity and installation status (whether or not the package is installed).
◈ Awareness of apt.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ /etc/apt/sources.list
◈ dpkg
◈ dpkg-reconfigure
◈ apt-get
◈ apt-cache


102.5 Use RPM and YUM package management

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to perform package management using RPM, YUM and Zypper.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Install, re-install, upgrade and remove packages using RPM, YUM and Zypper.
◈ Obtain information on RPM packages such as version, status, dependencies, integrity and signatures.
◈ Determine what files a package provides, as well as find which package a specific file comes from.
◈ Awareness of dnf.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ rpm
◈ rpm2cpio
◈ /etc/yum.conf
◈ /etc/yum.repos.d/
◈ yum
◈ zypper

102.6 Linux as a virtualization guest

Weight: 1

Description: Candidates should understand the implications of virtualization and cloud computing on a Linux guest system.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Understand the general concept of virtual machines and containers.
◈ Understand common elements virtual machines in an IaaS cloud, such as computing instances, block storage and networking.
◈ Understand unique properties of a Linux system which have to changed when a system is cloned or used as a template.
◈ Understand how system images are used to deploy virtual machines, cloud instances and containers.
◈ Understand Linux extensions which integrate Linux with a virtualization product.
◈ Awareness of cloud-init.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ Virtual machine
◈ Linux container
◈ Application container
◈ Guest drivers
◈ SSH host keys
◈ D-Bus machine id

Topic 103: GNU and Unix Commands

103.1 Work on the command line

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to interact with shells and commands using the command line. The objective assumes the Bash shell.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Use single shell commands and one line command sequences to perform basic tasks on the command line.
◈ Use and modify the shell environment including defining, referencing and exporting environment variables.
◈ Use and edit command history.
◈ Invoke commands inside and outside the defined path.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ bash
◈ echo
◈ env
◈ export
◈ pwd
◈ set
◈ unset
◈ type
◈ which
◈ man
◈ uname
◈ history
◈ .bash_history
◈ Quoting

103.2 Process text streams using filters

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to apply filters to text streams.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Send text files and output streams through text utility filters to modify the output using standard ◈ UNIX commands found in the GNU textutils package.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ bzcat
◈ cat
◈ cut
◈ head
◈ less
◈ md5sum
◈ nl
◈ od
◈ paste
◈ sed
◈ sha256sum
◈ sha512sum
◈ sort
◈ split
◈ tail
◈ tr
◈ uniq
◈ wc
◈ xzcat
◈ zcat

103.3 Perform basic file management

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to use the basic Linux commands to manage files and directories.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Copy, move and remove files and directories individually.
◈ Copy multiple files and directories recursively.
◈ Remove files and directories recursively.
◈ Use simple and advanced wildcard specifications in commands.
◈ Using find to locate and act on files based on type, size, or time.
◈ Usage of tar, cpio and dd.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ cp
◈ find
◈ mkdir
◈ mv
◈ ls
◈ rm
◈ rmdir
◈ touch
◈ tar
◈ cpio
◈ dd
◈ file
◈ gzip
◈ gunzip
◈ bzip2
◈ bunzip2
◈ xz
◈ unxz
◈ file globbing

103.4 Use streams, pipes and redirects

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to redirect streams and connect them in order to efficiently process textual data. Tasks include redirecting standard input, standard output and standard error, piping the output of one command to the input of another command, using the output of one command as arguments to another command and sending output to both stdout and a file.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Redirecting standard input, standard output and standard error.
◈ Pipe the output of one command to the input of another command.
◈ Use the output of one command as arguments to another command.
◈ Send output to both stdout and a file.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ tee
◈ xargs

103.5 Create, monitor and kill processes

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to perform basic process management.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Run jobs in the foreground and background.
◈ Signal a program to continue running after logout.
◈ Monitor active processes.
◈ Select and sort processes for display.
◈ Send signals to processes.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ &
◈ bg
◈ fg
◈ jobs
◈ kill
◈ nohup
◈ ps
◈ top
◈ free
◈ uptime
◈ pgrep
◈ pkill
◈ killall
◈ watch
◈ screen
◈ tmux

103.6 Modify process execution priorities

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should should be able to manage process execution priorities.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Know the default priority of a job that is created.
◈ Run a program with higher or lower priority than the default.
◈ Change the priority of a running process.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ nice
◈ ps
◈ renice
◈ top

103.7 Search text files using regular expressions

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to manipulate files and text data using regular expressions. This objective includes creating simple regular expressions containing several notational elements as well as understanding the differences between basic and extended regular expressions. It also includes using regular expression tools to perform searches through a filesystem or file content.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Create simple regular expressions containing several notational elements.
◈ Understand the differences between basic and extended regular expressions.
◈ Understand the concepts of special characters, character classes, quantifiers and anchors.
◈ Use regular expression tools to perform searches through a filesystem or file content.
◈ Use regular expressions to delete, change and substitute text.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ grep
◈ egrep
◈ fgrep
◈ sed
◈ regex(7)

103.8 Basic file editing

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to edit text files using vi. This objective includes vi navigation, vi modes, inserting, editing, deleting, copying and finding text. It also includes awareness of other common editors and setting the default editor.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Navigate a document using vi.
◈ Understand and use vi modes.
◈ Insert, edit, delete, copy and find text in vi.
◈ Awareness of Emacs, nano and vim.
◈ Configure the standard editor.

Terms and Utilities:

◈ vi
◈ /, ?
◈ h,j,k,l
◈ i, o, a
◈ d, p, y, dd, yy
◈ ZZ, :w!, :q!
◈ EDITOR

Topic 104: Devices, Linux Filesystems, Filesystem Hierarchy Standard

104.1 Create partitions and filesystems

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to configure disk partitions and then create filesystems on media such as hard disks. This includes the handling of swap partitions.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Manage MBR and GPT partition tables
◈ Use various mkfs commands to create various filesystems such as:
     ◈ ext2/ext3/ext4
     ◈ XFS
     ◈ VFAT
     ◈ exFAT

◈ Basic feature knowledge of Btrfs, including multi-device filesystems, compression and subvolumes.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ fdisk
◈ gdisk
◈ parted
◈ mkfs
◈ mkswap

104.2 Maintain the integrity of filesystems

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to maintain a standard filesystem, as well as the extra data associated with a journaling filesystem.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Verify the integrity of filesystems.
◈ Monitor free space and inodes.
◈ Repair simple filesystem problems.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ du
◈ df
◈ fsck
◈ e2fsck
◈ mke2fs
◈ tune2fs
◈ xfs_repair
◈ xfs_fsr
◈ xfs_db

104.3 Control mounting and unmounting of filesystems

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to configure the mounting of a filesystem.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Manually mount and unmount filesystems.
◈ Configure filesystem mounting on bootup.
◈ Configure user mountable removable filesystems.
◈ Use of labels and UUIDs for identifying and mounting file systems.
◈ Awareness of systemd mount units.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ /etc/fstab
◈ /media/
◈ mount
◈ umount
◈ blkid
◈ lsblk

104.4 Removed

104.5 Manage file permissions and ownership

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to control file access through the proper use of permissions and ownerships.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Manage access permissions on regular and special files as well as directories.
◈ Use access modes such as suid, sgid and the sticky bit to maintain security.
◈ Know how to change the file creation mask.
◈ Use the group field to grant file access to group members.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ chmod
◈ umask
◈ chown
◈ chgrp

104.6 Create and change hard and symbolic links

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to create and manage hard and symbolic links to a file.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Create links.
◈ Identify hard and/or soft links.
◈ Copying versus linking files.
◈ Use links to support system administration tasks.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ ln
◈ ls

104.7 Find system files and place files in the correct location

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be thoroughly familiar with the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS), including typical file locations and directory classifications.

Key Knowledge Areas:

◈ Understand the correct locations of files under the FHS.
◈ Find files and commands on a Linux system.
◈ Know the location and purpose of important file and directories as defined in the FHS.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

◈ find
◈ locate
◈ updatedb
◈ whereis
◈ which
◈ type
◈ /etc/updatedb.conf

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Best Linux Certification Books in 2019

As discussed earlier it’s completely an individual’s choice to go for self-study or prepare under the guidance of an instructor. However, both the ways of making your preparation for the exam day requires a vital mean that is the book. Books being one of the success pillars teach and guide a person better than any other source. Similarly, if a person after clearing the exam gets in the associated job, these Linux certification books would always help him in his career.

With the growing popularity of Linux certification, many Linux certification books have been launched in the market by the authors. Therefore, to get you out of this dilemma, there are certain Linux certification books, which are known not only for best buy but also for clearing the pupils’ exams. So, quickly explore the list and find the best Linux certification books suiting your requirements.

Must Read: Linux Books

Linux Certification Books for Novice

If you have only heard the term “LINUX” and never got the chance to learn or, practice it. Then, this article will help to make the path for you. In addition, if you wish to be a certified Linux administrator later, then you can find the best Linux certification books for your exam here:

1. Red Hat Linux Administration: A Beginners’ Guide

This guide would surely help those having the vast knowledge of networking and work experience on the Windows operating system. Covering the Linux network topology information, this book is a ray of hope for all the novices. It guides them about the installation and configuration of Linux OS, usage of the command line, and also the management of the file system and software by granting the rights to the users. Written by Michael Turner, Steve Shah, the book is published under Mc-Grawhill Osborne Media.

2. Essential Linux Administration: A Comprehensive Guide for Beginners

By Chuck Easttom, this book allows the users to understand the basics of Linux without being too technical. In fact, the person can understand better about the Linux server administration and network through this book.

By being one of the best Linux certification books, it has covered all the topics ranging from the Linux introduction to server virtualization. To your help, it also includes Linux shell commands, which are helpful in operating the Linux.

3. Linux: Easy Linux for Beginners

A systematic guide for Linux toddlers, this book helps to learn the OS and its command line terms. Updated this year, the author has designed and compiled it in such a way that it makes the effortless process of learning. Breaking the fundamental concepts into different sections, the new user finds it easy as it does not include technical writing.

Felix Alvaro, the author of this publication, promises its users with the knowledge that would be helpful for both, the fresher and professional to clear their linux+ exam.

4. Beginning the Linux Command Line by Sander Van Vugt

Beginning the Linux Command Line by Sander Van Vugt is a savior for all those who are looking to learn the installation of new software, management of file system, running of networking services, monitoring of users and other group accounts, and creation of fundamental shell scripts. Written in simplified language, this book teaches all the above-mentioned things to the beginners on the command line. To your ease, it has printed screenshot of all the command line terms. Thus, enabling you to start and get the desired output.

5. Beginning Red Hat Linux 9 by Bhattacharya

Those looking for the practical experience and knowledge or, instant Linux+ guide to Linux certification, must buy this book. Apart from covering all the topics, this publication allows the reader to learn how to shift from windows to Linux operating system. In brief, it covers internet usage, networking operations, printers connecting and usage, office and multimedia applications usage, web browsers function, security of the system, and most importantly, modifying your machine the way it suits your work.

Linux Certification Books for Professionals

If an individual is already well aware of the basics of Linux and is looking to move towards the advanced version of it then, following best-listed Linux certification books can be of great help to him.

1. CompTIA Linux+ Powered by Linux Professional Institute Study Guide: Exam LX0-103 and Exam LX0-104 (CompTIA Linux + Study Guide) 3rd Edition

The comprehensive guide includes all the vital content from the exams point of view. Covering the key topics, this publication provides objective questions for both LX0 103 and LX0 104 exam. Moreover, it makes you familiar with the latest exam pattern. In addition, this book also assists you in preparing for the exam by giving study tools like, electronic flashcards, practice exams, and glossary, which is important from exam viewpoint.

2. CompTIA Linux+/LPIC-1 Cert Guide: (Exams LX0-103 & LX0-104/101-400 & 102-400) (Certification Guide)

In order to earn the higher score, this publication written by Ross Brunson and Sean Walberg is worthy to buy and read. Covering all the topics straight-to-the-point for the LPIC-1 exam, the book assures to focus on the content, where you require the utmost help. Compiled with a quiz section, foundation topic section and chapter-ending exam preparation section, it helps you understand the concept in-depth and also remember it, to get the certification for being an administrator.

3. LPI Linux Certification in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference

People seeking the job in the field must buy such Linux certification books, as this guide helps you excel in technically challenging Linux exam. Written by four different trainers who worked with LPI, this publication has a lot to offer like, the summary of core skills, exercises, and questions to review, and practice test papers. This guide is surely for you if you already have a Linux working experience, and are capable of performing all the tasks in this operating system such as installation and troubleshooting.

4. Mike Meyers’ Certification Passport COMPTIA LINUX+

Written by Michael Jang, Mike Meyers’ Certification Passport COMPTIA LINUX+ provides expert tips, along with many other features like objectives of official exams, time management for each topic, vital topics, the definition of essential terms, and ample of practice exercises and papers. To add on, this book also provides a CD, which you can use to practice for your exam online.

From so many Linux certification books listed above, we hope you will find the one suiting your needs. Comprehensive and easy-to-understand, these books are surely useful not only for clearing the exam but also to be a system administrator.

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Top 7 Linux Trends to Watch in 2019

Ever since its creation, the Linux platform, given its open-sourced nature, has featured a vast array of innovative minds who are determined to bring world-changing ideas into reality. Owing to its broad developer user base, Linux has become one of today’s well-known and secure operating systems along with various other implementations.

Know the Latest Linux Trends in 2019

Considering the fact that the Linux kernel still boasts a wide potential for scalability and possible future use cases, Linux as a platform is assured to go through major development strides during the course of the next year. As a tribute to the innovative platform, we’ve compiled a detailed list of the Linux trends that are probable to see a hike in popularity in the coming year.

Also Read: Top 5 Linux Certifications in 2019

#1 The Great Ubuntu Revival

After experiencing minor setbacks in popularity during the past decade, Ubuntu is determined to make a major comeback. It will innovate and provide consumers with a secure working environment. What began with Ubuntu 18.04 is bound to continue with the upcoming 19.04 release of the operating system which is due this April.

Ubuntu 19.04 innovates on its previous versions on several different grounds which makes it one of the top Linux trends. Some of the planned inclusions for features include faster Snap applications, seamless integration with Android devices, fractional display scaling support, multitasking tweaks, and a brand-new installer for embedding the Ubuntu operating system within machines. Added to that, the next version of Ubuntu is expected to go through various graphical changes to make it appealing and efficient.

According to the annual user report generated by Canonical, Ubuntu experienced a 66% increase in users who opted in for using the operating system. Accounting for the changes and improvements that are planned for the operating system, these numbers are certain to increase during the course of the next year. Therefore, considering all the information and the improvements that are planned for the operating system, Ubuntu’s great revival will be one of the top Linux trends in 2019.

#2 Canonical’s Commerical Focus

During the previous year, the founder and CEO of Canonical Mark Shuttleworth mentioned his thoughts about the possibility of Canonical going public. Although the possibility of Canonical making to IPO wasn’t completely denied, Mark Shuttleworth explicitly mentioned his intention of focusing on the company’s commercial growth before it went public. Considering Canonical’s recent developments within the field of IoT and cloud computing, the company happens to be on every major investor’s list.

Canonical, during the previous year, decided to drop most of their unprofitable businesses and chose to develop their strengths further. This transition proved that Canonical isn’t quite where its representatives wish it to be. Given that Canonical still is brimming with commercial opportunities, their focus for growth is certain to stay firm during the next year as well.

This would essentially mean that we won’t be seeing canonical make it to IPO at least until early 2020. This trend of Canonical developing on its strengths will probably be one of the Linux trends to look out for in 2019.

#3 New Linux-based Hardware

The Linux platform has been in highlights ever since Chromebooks and Rasberry Pi garnered the interest of a very specific domain of audience. Given the minimal form factor and capabilities to perform everyday tasks smoothly, these Linux-based hardware are gaining new ground as the days pass by. Linux also saw various innovative implementations during the previous year, one of which being the Pursim Librem 5 – a rather innovative take on smartphones with privacy and data isolating being the sole focus behind its creation.

Looking at the new-found domain of audience that these innovative hardware solutions have appealed to, Linux will probably find various other hardware devices to adorn during the course of the next year.

With creative solutions like Samsungs’ Linux on Dex already being in the beta phase, this trend of new and emerging Linux-based hardware is bound to continue through the next year. Hence, the trend of developing and innovating with Linux within the hardware field will be one of the recent Linux trends this year.

#4 Chrome OS and Chromebooks

Chrome OS is growing to be one of the most versatile operating systems that are currently available on the market. With the ability to provide consumers with one of the smoothest web-centric experience, Chrome OS recently gained the capability to connect to Google’s Play Store and run almost any Android application natively. As consumers were adapting to the whole slew of features that opened up to them, Google integrated minor support for Linux-based applications and reported to be testing GPU support integration with these applications.

Given the improvements coming to the operating system’s way, it’ll be on a rapid climb towards arguably becoming the most versatile system capable of running Linux and Android applications. It is expected that by the end of the coming year, Chrome OS would be open to running Linux applications natively in a stable condition.

With the whole array of improvements being developed for Chrome OS, Chromebooks are also expected to see a major hike in sales. As Chrome OS expands its audience with the Android user base and Linux-based consumers, Chromebooks will inevitably get more popular by the end of the next year. This trend of Chrome OS getting better will make its way to being one of the Linux trends that graces next year.

#5 Expansion for Linux

2019 will be the year where Linux 5.0 kernel will finally be bestowed to the developers. As any updated release should be, the next iteration for the popular Linux kernel will be faster, smoother, and more powerful than other of the previous version of the same. Linux 5.0 kernel will feature many new additions like AMD GPU tweaks for better performance and touchscreen support for Rasberry Pi enthusiasts. It’ll also feature minor yet significant tweaks like a streamlined code and better hardware support.

Also Read: LPIC-1 Certified Linux Administrator

Owing to the release of the new and improved assets within the kernel, developers innovating with the same to create new and more efficient technology solutions is bound to become a trend in the coming year. This will ultimately lead to the Linux platform expanding far and wide. This trend of rapid expansion for the Linux platform owing to the new kernel release will be one of the big Linux trends of 2019.

#6 Linux in Super-computing

As Sierra is set to take its place as the second-fastest supercomputer with 125 petaflops of processing power, it is bound to spark considerable interest in the improvements within the super-computing field. Every supercomputer that currently exists runs on some form of Linux platform, and Sierra is no exception since it runs on Red Hats’ Enterprise Linux (RHEL).

The development and deployment for Linux-powered supercomputers is a trend that won’t be resting anytime in the next year. Given the flexible nature of the Linux platform and the capabilities that it is embedded with, the trend of Linux being used as the platform for supercomputers is assured to continue to be one of the major Linux trends of 2019.

#7 Linux and the Cloud

Although Linux is already well-known within the technical community, it’ll continue to expand in popularity according to the open source trends 2019. Given the growing emergence of cloud computing and related technology Linux trend is something to watch out for. Gartner states that 80% of the internally developed programs are either using cloud computing or are cloud-native. Within the cloud-based computing field, Linux is known to be the most popular operating system that is being used by enterprises.

Given the inter-dependency between cloud-based technologies and the Linux platform, the Linux platform is said to expand proportionally to the popularity of cloud-based solutions. Since cloud computing is almost assured to be the focal point of development during the next year, Linux will become more popular as a platform as well. This trend is assured to continue throughout the next year and is certain to be one of the top Linux trends of 2019.

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Top 5 Linux Distributions in 2019

Linux is not just an operating system, it represents an idea through which everybody has an opportunity to grow. There is something for everyone and nobody will be disappointed with the use of it. When you decide to use Linux, you need to first choose a distribution. Linux distributions are the open source Linux operating systems, packaged with different components such as management tools, installation programs etc.

Here in this article, we are going to discuss some best Linux distributions. This article will provide users the efficient information to take their decisions and to pick the best Linux distributions which will be most suitable for them.

As my personal experience when I used it the first time, I was completely blank what to do next. Yes, I liked it definitely. But the first time of using it, my experience was just like swimming against currents.

I was just watching the screen but didn’t get from where I have to start or where I have to land upon. Linux is definitely reason of pain for them who want to shift Linux from windows. These are top Linux distributions which especially fulfill the necessities of the beginners and developers.

List of Best Linux Distributions

We are providing a list of best Linux distros for beginners. But it doesn’t include the particular order. We are following some criteria such as easy to use, easy software package availability, software hardware with the new cut of technologies, and easiness in installation while compiling the list.

1. Ubuntu

In our list of top Linux distributions, we place Ubuntu in the first place. In 2004, it was introduced with sizzling effects. Since 2005, it has been able to maintain its place among the top 4 each and every year. DistroWatch.org site was ranked every year among the top 25. You will surprise to know that 9.5 % of this complete website belongs to Ubuntu.

Ubuntu successfully made aware of consumers about products amid Unity desktop manager Canonicals’ controversy. But now it does not serve longer. Along with that Ubuntu, also earned the attempt of a company to impose discipline on the complex universe of Linux-development successfully. Ubuntu is now considered a rich marketplace application as well as quite easy to use.

While internet surfing for Linux, you will surely come across Ubuntu once. Ubuntu is well known as a leading Linux distribution. If you want to start a new path to Linux, Ubuntu is the best option for you. Ubuntu has put its lot of efforts for universal usability. And it makes Ubuntu easier and closer to human beings.

To use Ubuntu, you do not require to be a completely technical person. It is useful to simplify Linux=Command line notion. This is one of the points which makes Ubuntu special among Linux distributions as per current scenario.

You can find the procedure of Ubuntu installation very much convenient. In the installation, the easy and simple English is going to use. Else it another major language is used which would also be easy to understand.

Features of Ubuntu

◈ The user interface of Ubuntu is called Unity. It is productive as well as simple. Your favorite apps accompanied with running apps will be on the right side of the dock. We call this right side of the dock – Dash. There will be an application search button on the windows too. Can you find any way simpler than it?

◈ Ubuntu possesses hardware detector in-built. For your PC, hardware detector detects, installs, and downloads the optimal drivers. So, there is no issue related to installation in Ubuntu. It is also one of the best Linux distros for laptops.

◈ There are almost all types of software which are needed for general use during installation. These include video player, office suites, music players, and games.

◈ Ubuntu possesses a great community as well as documentation support. There are two options in Ubuntu for quality support almost in every aspect related to Ubuntu. These are ‘Ask Ubuntu’ and ‘Ubuntu forums’.  The questions that may pop up in your mind has already been answered in these support communities. These answers are user-friendly, especially for beginners. So, it is one of the best Linux distributions for developers.

2. Linux Mint 

Linux Mint has maintained the top position in the rank list from 2011 to 2018. Throughout these seven years, it is ranked on Top with No. 1 position.

Mint is an Irish distribution. And it is based on Ubuntu. It has not failed to avail praise against its multimedia efficiency, stability, and various desktop managers support. Developers of Linux Mint give special focus on stability. That is the reason behind its’ firm support to conservative release cycle.

You are not able either to press into an involuntary beta tester or bleeding-edge technology updates. But with this one of the Linux distributions, you will be the best in present technology for sure.

Linux Mint Cinnamon secures number one place in the best Linux distributions for 2019. It is the best distro for Distrowatch. Linux Mint Cinnamon deserves the place undeniably. If you ask me, it is one of my favorites. It’s gracefulness, elegance, and out of the box, computing experiences are what make it my favorite.

Features of Linux Mint

◈ Linux Mint has featured with the cinnamon environment for the desktop. If you are a beginner with Linux software, you will find Cinnamon very easy and useful to work on. This brings it among the list of best Linux distros for laptops.

◈ There is no such feature which will give you the pain of learning new things for beginners who have the problem to avail even the names of Linux distributions. And all the necessary software are assembled and easily accessible under this feature.  These two are the biggest benefits which fall under Linux Mint Cinnamon.

◈ Linux Mint is compatible. It functions on the older version as well as the new version of the computer without differentiating in speed.

◈ Linux Mint uses the same software repository which Ubuntu uses. After going through extensive testing, Ubuntu uses a software repository on a general domain. This prevents users from suffering unwanted glitches as well as crashes. These are real issues in many software. This feature can prove very helpful to many new Linux Users.

◈ If you have ever used Windows 7, you will find Linux Mint desktop much similar to windows 7 desktop. You are thinking to switch Linux Mint from window 7, you will not feel nostalgic for sure. It is because they both have a similar tray of icons, similar toolbar, and a similar menu.

I personally recommend Linux Mint to those who are a newbie in the world of Linux distributions. It will surely leave an impression on you to accept it. I would like to place it on top in my priority list of the best Linux distributions for 2019.

3. Zorin OS

Most of the computer users are familiar with windows. But when window users think to switch over Linux, they have to face a good amount of ambiguous process, which every new user have to go through. While working on windows, we are conditioned with a great number of operations. Such as when we start the OS, we find ourselves to go to the lower left corner of the display every piece of time before launching any application.

If any Linux OS among the best Linux distributions for 2019, is able to solve these issues, congratulations you have covered half marathon successfully. Here Zorin OS comes into place. Zorin OS provides asylum for refugees of windows.  It is one of highly polished distribution among the best Linux distros for beginners.

It is not like that it is very much hard to use Linux distributions. But most of the users feel uncomfortable while working on completely changed or alienated screen. Here Zorin OS wins the preference war. Zorin OS reflects many similarities to windows in a matter of appearances.

Features of Zorin OS

◈ The concept of package managers is new for the Linux beginners. This makes Zorin OS provide a huge list for pre-installation. Whatever application you want for it, it is already installed on Zorin OS.

◈ You can install and run your favorite games as well as Windows software because PlayOnLinux and Wine software are pre-installed in Zorin OS.

◈ Theme engine is the center of attraction in Zorin OS. This engine is called Zorin look changer. Zorin OS doesn’t fail to offer several customization options which helps your Zorin OS to look like Windows XP, 2000, 7, and Mac. Nostalgia is far from your expectation with it. Use it and decide whether it is the best Linux distros for beginners? Sure the answer will be yes.

4. Elementary OS

Elementary OS is basically for Mac OS users. Until now we have discussed Linux distributions for windows. Due to its aesthetic essence, Elementary OS has risen to popularity in such nick of time.

Mac OS inspired its look which makes Elementary OS one of the most attractive Linux distributions. This is another operating system which is based on Ubuntu. So, you can find it stable without a second thought. It possesses the feature of Pantheon environment for the desktop.

Features of Elementary OS

◈ Once you decide to use it you will find it surely so many resemblances with the Mac OS system. So, it is the prior importance for the Mac OS users who want to shift to Linux. The same comfort zone with Elementary OS desktop which you are habitual while using MacOS. Elementary OS is helpful to cope you up with this change.

◈ It provides a simple as well as the customized menu as per the user’s preference. This operating system is not intrusive. This makes users very efficient to focus on your work. 

5. openSUSE

openSUSE is one of those Linux distributions which claims to be the most consistent performer. It is true that openSUSE never got first place on the top list from 2006 to 2017, but it has maintained its rank between No. 2 to No. 6 every annum between these years.

Features of openSUSE 

◈ openSUSE is German Linux distributions. openSUSE has given more emphasis on software development always. Its aim is to give amazing desktop experiences by providing a rich feature. It is one of the best Linux distros for developers.

◈ openSUSE anchors various types of desktop managers. But openSUSE is familiar with YaST package manager and KDE environment.

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Why Linux and DevOps Go Hand in Hand

Linux has had a profound effect on DevOps. It has forced the rethinking of processes and procedures due to the combined scalability, portability and source code that is processor independent from a build, compile, test and deploy perspective. There are tremendous opportunities in a number of DevOps-related career pathways, and having a solid understanding of Linux will set you up for a successful DevOps career.

Linux has a number of niche markets that allow IT pros move into specialized areas both vertically and laterally. Careers in the internet of things (IoT), embedded, client-based and server-based Linux systems all benefit equally from a career path oriented around the objectives covered by CompTIA Linux+.

But when it comes to DevOps, a Linux career path can traverse the Linux system scalability and portability trees with ease. From small to big scale, small to big data, the traditional functions of DevOps allow IT pros to work in any of these areas or to easily move from one to another. 

Standardized Build, Compile and Test Processes

Because Linux development can be single or multi-architecture, the build and make processes handle single and cross-platform compile and test processes with little to no effort on behalf of the DevOps pro. Through Linux networking, the same processes can be used to patch or deploy almost any application to one or more processor architectures or to one or thousands of Linux servers, workstations or IoT devices just as easily.

This is due to how Linux handles development, testing and deployment consistently across all platforms, architectures and all sizes of Linux distributions with only slight differences than what are normally handled in the build processes.

Scalability and Portability Across Architectures

Unique to the Linux OS, this benefit is possible because the operating system, administration and development processes and procedures are truly scalable and portable thanks to its UNIX roots. This is because a Linux DevOps career path remains focused on portable, scaled development and is hardware and software agnostic.

This allows IT pros to focus on the processes and procedures rather than the operating system design, which is ideal and normally almost impossible to accomplish. It also allows for a range of both lateral and vertical career movement offering almost limitless opportunities in the workforce.

If a DevOps pro decides to move on to large-scale systems, like the IBM Z series Mainframes, working for large organizations can easily be the focus for an entire career. That same person could just as easily center their career around the cloud or a large commercial applications development house that focuses on Linux DevOps for virtual machine or container development across many processor architectures.

Emerging Opportunities for Linux DevOps

Mainframe or Server, Cloud, Virtualization or Containerization, Intel, ARM or MIPS. Mix and match from the above list, and the Linux DevOps career path fits anywhere in the matrix. In more than 40 years of hardware and software development, there has never been a case where these rules could ever be applied.

The key is that machine virtualization and full processor emulation are built into and managed by the Linux kernel – unique to commercial-grade operating systems. This allows for cross-platform development from one processor architecture to another. It also means complete development, debugging, testing and deployment for many application types can be done completely on the host system of an Intel- or ARM-based computer and built, tested and deployed to the target systems directly from the host cross-development system.

These very features add career doorways that simply have never existed before. The Linux DevOps career path touches every technical area of Linux OS like no other. The growth potential into areas like software developer is natural. But some new areas are emerging that are changing the face of Linux DevOps forever.

These new and exciting growth areas are in part due to the reorganizing of the systems development and systems programming processes that have evolved over the past several years. A few years ago, these processes were centralized under the systems group, a carryover from the days of traditional mainframes. And these new Linux DevOps opportunities are growing very quickly, providing secure career growth for years to come.

Site Reliability Engineering

This is the new decentralized systems group of the 21st century – teams that include software engineers, systems architects, software infrastructure support and systems operations development and support. Linux DevOps specialists are members of these teams.

The processes and rules that have been a part of Linux DevOps are still there, but the Linux DevOps specialist now works within a team led by a systems engineer who both collaborates with and leads a team of skilled software developers working in a specialized area – applications for the server, desktop or cloud, device interface applications or specialized database or communications applications that are mission critical and require 100% uptime. This exciting new role allows Linux DevOps pros to work alongside software developers to develop incremental updates that morph an application from one generation to another with no system or application downtime.

Production Engineering

Similar to site reliability engineering (SRE), production engineering is the core team that updates, modifies, tests and patches the Linux core system, which includes the kernel, device drivers, memory management, and peripheral interfaces, peripheral software subsystems, and real-time monitor and control systems.

These groups, like SRE groups, have a systems core engineer, and the same staff as SRE, but with the responsibility of maintaining the system uptime at 100% by developing and testing patches to the Linux system while it is running. These teams have a Linux DevOps specialist who is responsible for building, testing and deploying core Linux system components to maintain live updates, allowing 100% uptime of all systems and applications relating to these respective systems.

It’s an exciting time for Linux DevOps careers – and anyone who wishes to pursue a career in Linux. There are many careers paths that can be pursued with a CompTIA Linux+ certification and other certifications to round out your IT skills. These are just a few of the endless possibilities to explore and grow into Linux over a prosperous lifelong career.

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Top 5 Linux Certifications in 2019

Best Linux Certifications are what you should aim for in 2019. Well, this is what the experts believe! But definitely, it might be a tough decision to make about choosing the right Linux certifications to boost up your career. Especially, the beginners, right? But, we here have simplified it for you. And, here is the list of those top 5 Linux certifications that you must go for in this year.

1. LINUX+ CompTIA

It has almost been two decades that employers have used this certification as their skills benchmark for employing any professional in the IT world. And, so attaining this has become the utter need for every individual who is looking forward to entering into this area of IT.

CompTIA Linux+ is one of the Linux certifications that tests the essential usage and managerial tasks that are common to all Linux distributors. Yes, UNIX flavors need it too! So, to attain this Linux+ certification, you are ought to get through these two tests, which are CompTIA Linux Certification (LX0-103) and CompTIA Linux Certification (LX0-104), which actually shares the similar content to LPIC-1 (LPI Level 1 – Linux Administrator certification. Of course, this has to be done through any Linux Professional Institute to list yourself among all those who are actually eligible to enter into the field of Linux.

Let’s know more about these two Linux certifications here:

CompTIA Linux Certification (LX0-103) – Explained

This test covers these few domains, which are:

◈ GNU and UNIX Commands
◈ System Architecture
◈ Linux Installation and Package Management
◈ Devices, Linux Filesystems, Filesystem Hierarchy Standard

CompTIA Linux Certification (LX0-104) – Explained

This test covers these few domains, which are:

◈ Security
◈ Shells, Scripting, and Data Management
◈ User Interfaces and Desktops
◈ Administrative Tasks
◈ Essential System Services
◈ Networking Fundamentals

Both these tests have 60 MCQs, which needs to be done within a time limit of 90 minutes. The passing score is 500 on the scale of 200-800 and all questions are weight based. Both the tests are to be passed to get the certification.

Why should you go for these Linux Certifications?

These Linux Certifications are important for every Linux oriented professional because of these following reasons:

a) Brand Recognition– CompTIA Linux+ will give you brand recognition, which most of the HR departments and IT managers are already aware of. All of them know, if any certification in Linux is ending with a + sign, then that’s surely going to be a good skill benchmark for any IT professional. So, yes, brand recognition is something you will achieve after becoming a CompTIA Linux+ professional.

b) Foundation of all Linux Jobs- For almost every job that involves the word ‘Linux’, you can consider this certification as a foundation. As this certification edifies you about all the general administration tasks, which most of the organizations would generally seek, your chances of getting hired almost doubles. Basically, it allows you to gain knowledge of all the administration concepts and tasks, which are generally expected in any organization.

So, get yourself educated about CompTIA Linux+ seems to quite helpful in getting all those important tasks done in the Linux department.

2. RHCE- RED HAT CERTIFIED ENGINEER

In the dominion of Linux world and Linux certifications, there is another important certification called RHCE- Red Hat Certified Engineer. Red Hat Certifications really stand out amongst all the Linux certifications and surely it has the power to make you too stand out from the bunch of professionals as well.

Among all the Red Hat Certifications, Red Hat’s more senior-level certifications are quite popular. So, go for the senior-level ones for getting hired in those top organizations. And, in case you hold this certification, there are different roles in the Linux world which you may try for. Some of these job roles are senior Linux administrator, senior systems engineer, IT analyst, senior UNIX administrator, and the like.

How tough is it to attain this certification?

Well, if we believe those sitting at the top positions in the IT world, this is one of the best Linux certifications, which any Linux professional must go for. And, that’s why it is not easy to obtain. So, for becoming a Red Hat Certified Engineer, you must first obtain the Red Hat Certified System Administrator (RHCSA) credential, which is then followed by passing a three and a half hour test, hands-on, and an exam that is performance-based including both demanding and intense questions.

In case, you have earned RHCE, you become eligible for RHCA (Red Hat Certified Architect) credentials including:

◈ RHCA: Application development
◈ RHCA: Datacenter
◈ RHCA: Cloud
◈ RHCA: DevOps
◈ RHCA: Application platform

So, in short, if you are looking for a better position and payout in any IT organization, we recommend you to go for this certification in 2019.

3. GCUX: GIAC CERTIFIED UNIX SECURITY ADMINISTRATOR

GIAC Certified UNIX System Administrators secures and audit Linux and UNIX systems. It is one of the Linux certifications that is done to attain the skills and abilities to do so. The main motive of this certification is to train individuals in installing, configuring, and monitoring both these systems. So, like any other Linux certification test, this one too has a few requirements, which are as follows:

◈ 75 questions
◈ 1 proctored exam
◈ Time Limit- 2 hours
◈ Minimum passing score of 68%

Basically, the candidate understands the physical security issues and password security with respect to both the UNIX and Linux systems. This exam even tests the capability of the candidate to understand Chroot- how to configure its services, its environment, how to configure scponly with chroot, and everything else about Chroot. Apart from this, some others areas of the UNIX and Linux are also touched including OS Install and Patching, Physical, User Account, and Password Access Control, Boot Services, Post-Exploitation and AIDE, SUDO, and many other important sections, without which UNIX and Linux, both are incomplete.

Being a part of SANS, this Linux certification is highly recommended to every Linux professional in 2019.  It encompasses more than 35 security certifications across different categories, which we mentioned above. Such an administrator falls under the Cyber Defense category. Also, their certifications need renewal after every four hours by earning 36 continuing professional experience which is also known as CPE.

4. ORACLE LINUX OCA & OCP

This Linux certification is all about attaining skills and abilities related to Oracle products and technologies. For passing the test to get the certification, the professional needs to pass the combination of passing exams and training and performance-based assignments, which depend on the level of certification.

With 6 levels of Oracle Certification Credentials- Oracle Certified Junior Associate (OJA), Oracle Certified Associate (OCA), Oracle Certified Professional (OCP), Oracle Certified Master (OCM), Oracle Certified Expert (OCE) and Oracle Certified Specialist (OCS), a candidate needs to master all such stages to be hired by a reputed IT company.

Certifications comprise of two exams, which are:

◈ OCA- 1Z0-100 Oracle Linux 5 and 6 System Administration, needs 61% to pass, and 80 questions to attempt
◈ OCP- 1Z0-105 Oracle Linux 6 Advanced System Administrator, requires 61% to pass, and has a total of 97 questions.

5. LPI (LINUX PROFESSIONAL INSTITUTE) Certifications

Started back in 1999 by Linus Torvalds, these Linux certifications today has become important for any Linux professional. This program is available in three distinct levels, which are:

LPIC- 1: Linux Administrator

It is a junior-level Linux certification with no perquisites. The candidate needs to pass 2 exams, which covers all basic Linux skills that even include installing and configuring Linux on a workstation, performing maintenance tasks, making LAN or internet connections, and more. Obtain CompTIA Linux+ powered by LPI credential first; which will make you qualified both for Linux+ and LPIC-1 credentials.

LPIC- 2: Linux Engineer

This is an advanced level Linux Certification, which requires an active LPIC-1 certification. It has two exams- First covers the file system and devices, kernel, system startup, network configuration, system maintenance, storage administration, and even capacity planning and the second exam covers email services, network client management, domain name servers, system security and troubleshooting, and the like tasks.

LPIC- 3: Linux Enterprise Professional Certification

It is a senior-level Linux certification, which needs an active LPIC-2 besides passing any single exam in the 300 series. This certification includes exam IDs, which are:

◈ 300: Mixed Environment
◈ 303: Security
◈ 304: Virtualization and High Availability

300: Mixed Environment covers Samba, work with Linux & windows client, and even plus OpenLDAP.

303: Security covers operations, application security, and the network are covered under the security exam besides cryptography and access controls.

304: Virtualization and High Availability covers virtualization and high availability cluster storage and engagement.

Latest Certification in LPIC

LPI’s latest certification is the LPIC-OT DevOps Tools Engineer, which allows the Linux professionals to utilize the tools for collaboration during software and system development. The exam has 60 questions and it lasts for about 90 minutes.

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Difference Between chmod and chown

The chmod and chown commands are used to control access to files in UNIX and Linux systems.

The chmod command stands for "change mode", and allows changing permissions of files and folders, also known as "modes" in UNIX. The chown command stands for "change owner", and allows changing the owner of a given file or folder, which can be a user and a group. That's the difference between them in a nutshell.

They are interrelated in so far as changing ownership of a file changes who the set permissions apply to. The new owner inherits the permissions.

Let's take a quick look at the basic usage of these commands.

chmod

The chmod command can be used in a couple of different ways, with permissions (or modes) set by numbers or by letters. Permissions can be given to a user who owns the file (u = user), group of said user (g = group), everyone else (o = others) or all users (a). And the basic permissions that can be given include read (r), write (w), and execute (x). There are also X, s, and t, but they're less commonly used.

When using numbers you can use a numeric value such as 644 to set permissions. The position of the value represents to whom is the permission given, and the actual value represents which (or how much) permissions are given as a sum total of each permission's unique value.

First position (in the above example 6) refers to the user. Second refers to the group of the user, and the third refers to all others.

Numeric values for permissions are:

4 = read 2 = write 1 = execute

So a value of 4 will only give read rights, but a value of 6 will give read and write rights because it is a sum of 4 and 2. 5 will give only read ane execute rights, and 7 will give all rights. Do this calculation for each numerical position and you'll end up with the desired value. So in the example of 644 we're giving the user who owns the file the permission to read and write (but not execute), the group of that user the permission to read only, and others the right to read only as well.

To set this mode with chmod on a file called important.txt we would simply run this command:

chmod 644 important.txt

Note that making a file executable, if it were a script or a program, amounts to simply giving someone or everyone a permission to execute. If this was an important.sh bash script we could allow the owner to execute, and others to read with the 744 mode, or everyone to execute with 755.

chmod 755 important.sh

Now, we can also use letters to accomplish the same thing, and we've already mentioned the relevant letters above. This is probably easier to remember than using numbers. For example, to accomplish the 644 permissions above we would run this:

chmod u+rw,go+r important.txt

So we're saying file owner user gets read and write permissions, group and others get to read.

The second example, with the important.sh file being made executable we could just run this:

chmod u+rwx,go+rx important.sh

If important.sh already had permissions set to 644 we can add everyone execute rights by simply running:

chmod +x important.sh

Not specifying the letter for anyone is treated as if we said "a", for all.

Finally, if we're setting permissions to a folder we need to specify the -R option (standing for "recursive"):

chmod -R 644 important-files/

chown

Basic usage of chown is pretty straightforward. You just need to remember that first comes the user (owner), and then the group, delimited by a colon.

This command will set the user "daniel", from the group of "admins" as owners of the directory "important-files":

chown -R daniel:admins important-files

Just like with chmod, the -R is there when it's a directory.

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